Dengue virus is a positive-sense RNA virus belonging to the Flavivirus genus of the family Flaviviridae. Dengue virus is widely distributed throughout the tropical and semitropical regions of the world and is transmitted to humans by mosquito vectors. Dengue virus is a leading cause of hospitalization and death in children in at least eight tropical Asian countries (WHO, 1997. Dengue haemorrhagic fever: diagnosis, treatment prevention and control—2nd ed. Geneva: WHO). There are four serotypes of dengue virus (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4) which annually cause an estimated 50-100 million cases of dengue fever and 500,000 cases of the more severe form of dengue virus infection, dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) (Gubler, D. J. & Meltzer, M. 1999 Adv Virus Res 53:35-70). DHF/DSS is seen predominately in children and adults experiencing a second dengue virus infection with a serotype different than that of their first dengue virus infection and in primary infection of infants who still have circulating dengue-specific maternal antibody (Burke, D. S. et al. 1988 Am J Trop Med Hyg 38:172-80; Halstead, S. B. et al. 1969 Am J Trop Med Hyg 18:997-1021; Thein S. et al. 1997 Am J Trop Med Hyg 56:566-72). A vaccine is needed to lessen the disease burden caused by dengue virus, but none is licensed. Because of the association of more severe disease with secondary dengue virus infection, a successful vaccine must induce immunity to all four serotypes. Immunity is primarily mediated by neutralizing antibody directed against the envelope E glycoprotein, a virion structural protein. Infection with one serotype induces long-lived homotypic immunity and a short-lived heterotypic immunity (Sabin, A. 1955 Amer J Trop Med Hyg 4:198-207). Therefore, the goal of immunization is to induce a long-lived neutralizing antibody response against DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4, which can best be achieved economically using live attenuated virus vaccines. This is a reasonable goal since a live attenuated vaccine has already been developed for the related yellow fever virus, another mosquito-borne flavivirus present in tropical and semitropical regions of the world (Monath, T. P. & Heinz, F. X. 1996 in: Fields B. N. et al. eds. Fields Virology Philadelphia: Lippincott-Ravan Publishers, 961-1034).
Several live attenuated dengue vaccine candidates have been developed and evaluated in humans or non-human primates. The first live attenuated dengue vaccine candidates were host range mutants developed by serial passage of wild type dengue viruses in the brains of mice and selection of mutants attenuated for humans (Kimura, R. & Hotta, S. 1944 Japanese J Bacteriology 1:96-99; Sabin, A. B. & Schlesinger, R. W. 1945 Science 101:640; Wisseman, C. L. Jr. et al. 1963 Am J Trop Med 12:620-623). Although these candidate vaccine viruses were immunogenic in humans, their poor growth in cell culture discouraged further development. Additional live attenuated DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4 vaccine candidates have been developed by serial passage in tissue culture (Angsubhakorn, S. et al. 1994 Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 25:554-9; Bancroft, W. H. et al. 1981 Infect Immun 31:698-703; Bhamarapravati, N. et al. 1987 Bull World Health Organ 65:189-95; Eckels, K. H. et al. 1984 Am J Trop Med Hyg 33:684-9; Hoke, C. H. Jr. et al. 1990 Am J Trop Med Hyg 43:219-26; Kanesa-thasan, N. et al. 2001 Vaccine 19:3179-88) or by chemical mutagenesis (McKee, K. T. Jr. et al. 1987 Am J Trop Med Hyg 36:435-42). It has proven very difficult to achieve a satisfactory balance between attenuation and immunogenicity for each of the four serotypes of dengue virus using these approaches and to formulate a tetravalent vaccine that is safe and satisfactorily immunogenic against each of the four dengue viruses (Kanesa-thasan, N. et al. 2001 Vaccine 19:3179-88; Bhamarapravati, N. & Sutee, Y. 2000 Vaccine 18 Suppl 2: 44-7).
Two major advances utilizing recombinant DNA technology have recently made it possible to develop additional promising live attenuated dengue virus vaccine candidates. First, methods have been developed to recover infectious dengue virus from cells transfected with RNA transcripts derived from a full-length cDNA clone of the dengue virus genome, thus making it possible to derive infectious viruses bearing attenuating mutations which have been introduced into the cDNA clone by site-directed mutagenesis (Lai, C. J. et al. 1991 PNAS USA 88:5139-43). Second, it is possible to produce antigenic chimeric viruses in which the structural protein coding region of the full-length cDNA clone of dengue virus is replaced by that of a different dengue virus serotype or from a more divergent flavivirus (Bray, M. & Lai, C. J. 1991 PNAS USA 88: 10342-6; Chen, W. et al. 1995 J Virol 69:5186-90; Huang, C. Y. et al. 2000 J Virol 74:3020-8; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS USA 95:1746-51). These techniques have been used to construct intertypic chimeric dengue viruses which have been shown to be effective in protecting monkeys against homologous dengue virus challenge (Bray, M. et al. 1996 J Virol 70:4162-6). Despite these advances, there is a need to develop attenuated antigenic dengue virus vaccines that specify a satisfactory balance between attenuation and immunogenicity for humans.